Dairy cow nutrition guide
A lactation cycle stage by stage: the dry period, the transition around calving, peak, mid and late lactation. What changes in the ration and what to watch in each stage.
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Animal groups
ContentsRation targets by stageFar-off dry periodClose-up periodFresh cowsPeak and early lactationMid lactationLate lactation
ContentsGrowth targets by ageYoung growing heiferBefore pubertyBreeding periodPregnant heiferBefore calving (close-up)
ContentsColostrumTransition milkMilk period before weaningStarter feed & rumen developmentWeaningAfter weaningCalf scours
Member area / Dairy cattle
Dairy cattle
A lactation cycle stage by stage: the dry period, the transition around calving, peak, mid and late lactation. What changes in the ration and what to watch in each stage.
Feeding stages
OverviewRation targets by stage01Dry: 60–21 days before calvingFar-off dry period02Last 21 daysClose-up period030–21 DIMFresh cows04~3–100 DIMPeak and early lactation05~100–200 DIMMid lactation06~200 DIM – dry-offLate lactation07
Software
Dairy ration formulation (NASEM 2021)
Open the ration softwareFarms, groups, Holstein/Jersey animal profiles, NASEM 2021 requirements, energy, MP, amino acids, minerals, DCAD, cost, least-cost optimization, versions and reports.
Feeding guides
Farm forms and records
Daily feed intake log
Track feed delivered, refusals and dry matter intake per group; the simplest way to see whether a ration works.
Body condition score record
Score cows at key stages and track the change; large losses after calving point to transition problems.
Fresh cow check sheet (0–21 days)
A daily check of each fresh cow for the first three weeks after calving to catch metabolic problems early.
Tools and pages
Member area / Dairy cattle / 1. stage
Ration targets by stage
OverviewNutrient needs change a lot during the year. Grouping cows by stage and feeding each group its own ration is the basis of good dairy nutrition. The ranges below are typical starting points for Holstein cows; the right values for your farm depend on yield, forages and intake.
Key points
- Feed a separate ration at least for far-off dry, close-up and lactating cows.
- Check dry matter intake, body condition and manure regularly; they show whether the ration works.
- Analyse forages at least every time a new silo or batch is opened.
Typical ration ranges (% of DM; NEL in Mcal/kg DM)
| Stage | CP | NDF | Starch | NEL |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Far-off dry | 12–13 | 40–50 | 12–16 | 1.30–1.40 |
| Close-up | 13–15 | 35–42 | 16–20 | 1.45–1.55 |
| Fresh (0–21 DIM) | 17–18 | 30–34 | 22–25 | 1.65–1.70 |
| Peak / early | 16–17.5 | 28–32 | 24–28 | 1.70–1.75 |
| Mid lactation | 15–16 | 30–35 | 22–26 | 1.60–1.70 |
| Late lactation | 14–15 | 33–38 | 18–24 | 1.50–1.60 |
TargetEach group fed a ration that matches its stage and yield.
For this stage
Dairy cow nutrition guide
A lactation cycle stage by stage: the dry period, the transition around calving, peak, mid and late lactation. What changes in the ration and what to watch in each stage.
Member area / Dairy cattle / 2. stage
Far-off dry period
Dry: 60–21 days before calvingThe dry period lets the udder regenerate before the next lactation. The aim is to keep the cow in the right condition, not to fatten or slim her.
Key points
- Controlled-energy ration: plenty of forage, often with straw, so cows eat to appetite without over-consuming energy.
- Dry-off at body condition about 3.25–3.5; correct condition in late lactation, not in the dry period.
- Balanced minerals and vitamins (especially vitamin E and selenium) through the dry period.
- Good cow comfort: clean, dry bedding and enough space.
TargetStable body condition through the dry period, with no gain or loss.
For this stage
Body condition score record
Score cows at key stages and track the change; large losses after calving point to transition problems.
Complete guide (PDF)
Dairy cow nutrition guide
A lactation cycle stage by stage: the dry period, the transition around calving, peak, mid and late lactation. What changes in the ration and what to watch in each stage.
Member area / Dairy cattle / 3. stage
Close-up period
Last 21 daysThe last three weeks prepare the cow for calving and lactation. Intake drops naturally before calving, so the ration must be denser while keeping blood calcium under control.
Key points
- For milk fever prevention, a negative DCAD ration (about −10 to −15 mEq/100 g DM) with urine pH monitoring is widely used.
- Introduce the lactation ration’s main ingredients in small amounts.
- Avoid group changes in the last 10 days and overcrowding at the feed bunk.
- Body condition at calving about 3.25–3.5, not above 3.75.
TargetClinical milk fever below 1–2% and a smooth start to lactation.
For this stage
Body condition score record
Score cows at key stages and track the change; large losses after calving point to transition problems.
Complete guide (PDF)
Dairy cow nutrition guide
A lactation cycle stage by stage: the dry period, the transition around calving, peak, mid and late lactation. What changes in the ration and what to watch in each stage.
Member area / Dairy cattle / 4. stage
Fresh cows
0–21 DIMMilk yield rises faster than intake after calving, so every cow enters negative energy balance. Most metabolic problems (ketosis, displaced abomasum, retained placenta) happen in these weeks.
Key points
- Keep fibre adequate (about 30–34% NDF) while raising energy step by step to protect the rumen.
- Fresh feed, always available; push up feed often.
- Check fresh cows daily: appetite, rumination, temperature, manure and ketones.
- Body condition loss in early lactation should stay below about 0.5–0.75 points.
TargetRising dry matter intake every day and subclinical ketosis below about 15–20%.
For this stage
Fresh cow check sheet (0–21 days)
A daily check of each fresh cow for the first three weeks after calving to catch metabolic problems early.
Daily feed intake log
Track feed delivered, refusals and dry matter intake per group; the simplest way to see whether a ration works.
Complete guide (PDF)
Dairy cow nutrition guide
A lactation cycle stage by stage: the dry period, the transition around calving, peak, mid and late lactation. What changes in the ration and what to watch in each stage.
Member area / Dairy cattle / 5. stage
Peak and early lactation
~3–100 DIMPeak milk usually comes 50–70 days after calving, while peak intake comes a few weeks later. Every extra kilogram of peak milk adds roughly 200 kg over the lactation.
Key points
- Energy-dense ration with highly digestible forages; enough rumen-degradable starch without causing acidosis.
- Balance metabolisable protein and amino acids (lysine, methionine) rather than just raising crude protein.
- Check particle size with the Penn State separator and watch for signs of SARA.
- Resume cycling and breeding: energy balance and trace minerals affect fertility.
TargetA high, well-sustained peak and pregnancy by about 100–120 days in milk.
For this stage
Daily feed intake log
Track feed delivered, refusals and dry matter intake per group; the simplest way to see whether a ration works.
Complete guide (PDF)
Dairy cow nutrition guide
A lactation cycle stage by stage: the dry period, the transition around calving, peak, mid and late lactation. What changes in the ration and what to watch in each stage.
Member area / Dairy cattle / 6. stage
Mid lactation
~100–200 DIMIntake has reached its maximum and the cow is now in positive energy balance. The goal is persistence: a slow, steady decline in yield.
Key points
- Adjust energy and protein to actual yield; avoid overfeeding low-yielding cows in mixed groups.
- Start rebuilding lost body condition gradually.
- This is often the most profitable stage: income over feed cost is a good check of the ration.
TargetMonthly decline in milk of no more than about 6–8% (less in first-lactation cows).
For this stage
Daily feed intake log
Track feed delivered, refusals and dry matter intake per group; the simplest way to see whether a ration works.
Complete guide (PDF)
Dairy cow nutrition guide
A lactation cycle stage by stage: the dry period, the transition around calving, peak, mid and late lactation. What changes in the ration and what to watch in each stage.
Member area / Dairy cattle / 7. stage
Late lactation
~200 DIM – dry-offYield is falling and the cow is pregnant. This is the right time to correct body condition before dry-off.
Key points
- Lower energy and protein density to match yield; more forage, less concentrate.
- Bring cows to about 3.25–3.5 body condition by dry-off; do not let them get fat.
- Plan dry-off: reduce yield in the last days and use the udder health protocol agreed with your veterinarian.
TargetCows dry off at the target condition, with low somatic cell counts.
For this stage
Body condition score record
Score cows at key stages and track the change; large losses after calving point to transition problems.
Complete guide (PDF)
Dairy cow nutrition guide
A lactation cycle stage by stage: the dry period, the transition around calving, peak, mid and late lactation. What changes in the ration and what to watch in each stage.
Member area / Heifers
Heifers
From four months to first calving: growth targets for each stage, how to feed them and what to avoid, so heifers calve at 22–24 months at the right size.
Feeding stages
OverviewGrowth targets by age014–6 monthsYoung growing heifer026–12 monthsBefore puberty0313–15 monthsBreeding period0415–21 monthsPregnant heifer05Last 3 weeksBefore calving (close-up)06
Feeding guides
Heifer nutrition guide
From four months to first calving: growth targets for each stage, how to feed them and what to avoid, so heifers calve at 22–24 months at the right size.
Farm forms and records
Heifer growth record
Measure heifers every 2–3 months and compare with the targets to catch groups that fall behind or get too fat.
Tools and pages
Member area / Heifers / 1. stage
Growth targets by age
OverviewHeifer rearing is the second-largest cost on a dairy farm. Heifers that calve at 22–24 months at the right size are cheaper to raise and produce well without calving problems. Weigh or tape-measure them regularly; you cannot manage what you do not measure.
Key points
- Breed at about 55% of mature body weight (often 13–15 months for Holsteins).
- Calve at about 85% of mature body weight (measured after calving).
- Aim for a steady daily gain of roughly 0.8–0.9 kg from weaning to calving.
- Measure every 2–3 months and compare with the table; adjust the ration of groups that fall behind or get too fat.
Example targets for Holstein heifers (mature weight ~700 kg)
| Age | Body weight | Wither height | BCS |
|---|---|---|---|
| Birth | 40 kg | – | – |
| 2 months (weaning) | 80–85 kg | ~85 cm | – |
| 6 months | 190–200 kg | ~105 cm | 2.5–2.75 |
| 12 months | 340–360 kg | ~122 cm | 2.75–3.0 |
| 13–15 months (breeding) | ~385 kg (55%) | ~127 cm | 3.0–3.25 |
| 22–24 months (after calving) | ~595 kg (85%) | ~137 cm | 3.25–3.5 |
TargetAge at first calving 22–24 months.
For this stage
Heifer growth record
Measure heifers every 2–3 months and compare with the targets to catch groups that fall behind or get too fat.
Complete guide (PDF)
Heifer nutrition guide
From four months to first calving: growth targets for each stage, how to feed them and what to avoid, so heifers calve at 22–24 months at the right size.
Member area / Heifers / 2. stage
Young growing heifer
4–6 monthsThe rumen is now functional but still small. Heifers need a nutrient-dense ration: good-quality forage plus concentrate, not straw-based diets.
Key points
- Ration of about 16–17% crude protein in DM.
- Good-quality hay or haylage plus about 2–2.5 kg concentrate per day; introduce silage gradually.
- Provide a heifer mineral–vitamin premix and free access to clean water.
- Keep groups even in size; small heifers lose out at the feed bunk.
TargetDaily gain of about 0.8–0.9 kg; about 190–200 kg at 6 months.
For this stage
Heifer growth record
Measure heifers every 2–3 months and compare with the targets to catch groups that fall behind or get too fat.
Complete guide (PDF)
Heifer nutrition guide
From four months to first calving: growth targets for each stage, how to feed them and what to avoid, so heifers calve at 22–24 months at the right size.
Member area / Heifers / 3. stage
Before puberty
6–12 monthsBetween about 3 and 10 months the udder grows faster than the rest of the body. Too much energy in this period deposits fat in the developing udder and can reduce future milk yield. Puberty comes at about 40–45% of mature weight (usually 9–11 months).
Key points
- Ration of about 14–15% crude protein in DM; balance energy and protein rather than pushing energy.
- Forage-based ration with about 1.5–2.5 kg concentrate, depending on forage quality.
- Avoid daily gains above about 0.9–1.0 kg on high-energy diets (for example, unrestricted corn silage).
- Watch body condition: aim for about 2.75–3.0, not fatter.
TargetAbout 340–360 kg and ~122 cm wither height at 12 months, without over-conditioning.
For this stage
Heifer growth record
Measure heifers every 2–3 months and compare with the targets to catch groups that fall behind or get too fat.
Complete guide (PDF)
Heifer nutrition guide
From four months to first calving: growth targets for each stage, how to feed them and what to avoid, so heifers calve at 22–24 months at the right size.
Member area / Heifers / 4. stage
Breeding period
13–15 monthsSize, not age, decides when a heifer is ready to breed. Heifers bred too small have more calving difficulty; heifers bred too late cost more and calve too fat.
Key points
- Breed at about 55% of mature weight (~385 kg) and ~127 cm wither height for Holsteins.
- Ration of about 13–14% crude protein; avoid sudden drops in energy around breeding.
- Trace minerals and vitamins (selenium, copper, zinc, iodine, vitamins A and E) support fertility; use a balanced premix.
- Body condition about 3.0–3.25 at breeding.
TargetFirst-service conception rate of 60% or more in heifers.
For this stage
Heifer growth record
Measure heifers every 2–3 months and compare with the targets to catch groups that fall behind or get too fat.
Complete guide (PDF)
Heifer nutrition guide
From four months to first calving: growth targets for each stage, how to feed them and what to avoid, so heifers calve at 22–24 months at the right size.
Member area / Heifers / 5. stage
Pregnant heifer
15–21 monthsThe pregnant heifer is still growing. She needs steady growth for her own body and, in the last months, for the calf, but she must not get fat.
Key points
- Ration of about 12–13% crude protein, mostly forage.
- If corn silage is the main forage, dilute energy with straw or lower-energy hay to prevent fattening.
- Keep minerals and vitamins balanced all the way through pregnancy.
- Over-conditioned heifers have more calving difficulty, retained placenta and ketosis after calving.
TargetSteady gain of about 0.8 kg per day; body condition not above 3.5.
For this stage
Heifer growth record
Measure heifers every 2–3 months and compare with the targets to catch groups that fall behind or get too fat.
Complete guide (PDF)
Heifer nutrition guide
From four months to first calving: growth targets for each stage, how to feed them and what to avoid, so heifers calve at 22–24 months at the right size.
Member area / Heifers / 6. stage
Before calving (close-up)
Last 3 weeksThe last three weeks prepare the heifer for her first lactation. The goal is to keep dry matter intake up and to get the rumen used to the lactation ration.
Key points
- If possible, group close-up heifers separately from older cows; they lose out in competition.
- Introduce the main ingredients of the lactation ration in small amounts.
- Heifers rarely get milk fever, so a strongly negative DCAD ration is usually not needed; balance protein and energy carefully.
- Provide at least about 75 cm of feed-bunk space per heifer and comfortable, clean bedding.
TargetCalving at 22–24 months, body condition 3.25–3.5 and about 85% of mature weight after calving.
For this stage
Heifer growth record
Measure heifers every 2–3 months and compare with the targets to catch groups that fall behind or get too fat.
Complete guide (PDF)
Heifer nutrition guide
From four months to first calving: growth targets for each stage, how to feed them and what to avoid, so heifers calve at 22–24 months at the right size.
Member area / Calves
Calves
Step by step from birth to four months: colostrum, the milk period before weaning, starter feed, weaning and the weeks after.
Feeding stages
0–24 hoursColostrum01Days 2–4Transition milk02Week 1 – weaningMilk period before weaning03Day 3 – weaningStarter feed & rumen development04Weeks 6–8Weaning052–4 monthsAfter weaning06HealthCalf scours07
Feeding guides
Calf nutrition guide
Step by step from birth to four months: colostrum, the milk period before weaning, starter feed, weaning and the weeks after.
Farm forms and records
Colostrum record
Every newborn calf: timing, amount and quality of the first colostrum feedings and a passive immunity check.
Calf growth & health record
One sheet per calf from birth to weaning: milk, starter, water, scours and treatments week by week.
Tools and pages
Member area / Calves / 1. stage
Colostrum
0–24 hoursThe calf is born without antibodies and depends entirely on colostrum for passive immunity. The gut absorbs antibodies best in the first hours of life; after about 24 hours absorption practically stops.
Key points
- First feeding within 1–2 hours of birth: about 10–12% of body weight (around 4 L for a Holstein calf).
- A second feeding of about 2 L within 12 hours.
- Check quality with a Brix refractometer: 22% or higher is good-quality colostrum. Store surplus good colostrum frozen.
- If the calf does not drink enough, use an oesophageal feeder; do not wait.
- Collect, store and feed colostrum clean; bacteria interfere with antibody absorption.
TargetSerum total protein ≥5.5 g/dL (or serum Brix ≥8.4%) in calves aged 1–7 days.
For this stage
Colostrum record
Every newborn calf: timing, amount and quality of the first colostrum feedings and a passive immunity check.
Complete guide (PDF)
Calf nutrition guide
Step by step from birth to four months: colostrum, the milk period before weaning, starter feed, weaning and the weeks after.
Member area / Calves / 2. stage
Transition milk
Days 2–4Milk from the 2nd to the 6th milking after calving is still richer in protein, fat, antibodies and growth factors than normal milk. It protects the gut locally and supports its development.
Key points
- Feed transition milk for the first 3–4 days instead of moving straight to whole milk or milk replacer.
- Split it into at least two feedings a day.
- Start offering clean water and a small handful of starter from day 3.
TargetAn active calf with good appetite and firm faeces at the end of the first week.
For this stage
Colostrum record
Every newborn calf: timing, amount and quality of the first colostrum feedings and a passive immunity check.
Calf growth & health record
One sheet per calf from birth to weaning: milk, starter, water, scours and treatments week by week.
Complete guide (PDF)
Calf nutrition guide
Step by step from birth to four months: colostrum, the milk period before weaning, starter feed, weaning and the weeks after.
Member area / Calves / 3. stage
Milk period before weaning
Week 1 – weaningBefore weaning the calf is a monogastric animal: milk is its main source of energy and protein. Well-fed calves grow faster, get sick less and, according to many studies, give more milk in their first lactation.
Key points
- Offer around 6–8 L of whole milk or milk replacer per day, or more in accelerated programs; about 4 L a day only covers maintenance.
- Split the daily amount into at least two, preferably three feedings.
- Feed at a consistent temperature (about 38–40 °C), time and concentration.
- Milk replacer: about 22–26% crude protein and 15–20% fat, preferably from milk proteins; mix at 12.5–15% solids according to the label.
- Offer clean fresh water from the first days, separately from milk. Milk goes to the abomasum, water goes to the rumen.
- Clean bottles, buckets and teats after every feeding.
Example milk program (Holstein, step-down weaning)
| Age | Milk / milk replacer per day | Feedings |
|---|---|---|
| Days 1–3 | Colostrum, then transition milk | 2–3 |
| Week 1 | 6 L | 2–3 |
| Weeks 2–5 | 8 L | 2–3 |
| Week 6 | 6 L | 2 |
| Week 7 | 4 L | 2 |
| Week 8 | 2 L, then stop | 1 |
TargetDaily gain of about 0.7–0.9 kg and birth weight doubled by about 8 weeks of age.
For this stage
Calf growth & health record
One sheet per calf from birth to weaning: milk, starter, water, scours and treatments week by week.
Complete guide (PDF)
Calf nutrition guide
Step by step from birth to four months: colostrum, the milk period before weaning, starter feed, weaning and the weeks after.
Member area / Calves / 4. stage
Starter feed & rumen development
Day 3 – weaningThe rumen develops through fermentation of starter feed: butyrate and propionate produced from grain stimulate papilla growth. Milk alone does not develop the rumen.
Key points
- Offer a palatable, fresh starter from about day 3; small amounts, replaced daily.
- A good starter: about 18–22% crude protein (DM), texturised or pelleted, low in dust and fines.
- Water intake drives starter intake; never restrict water.
- A small amount of chopped straw or hay (around 5% of the total) can support rumen function; avoid large amounts of long hay before weaning.
- Do not overfeed milk in the last weeks; high milk intake holds back starter intake.
Typical starter intake (Holstein)
| Age | Starter per day |
|---|---|
| Week 2 | 50–100 g |
| Week 4 | 250–400 g |
| Week 6 | 0.7–1.0 kg |
| At weaning | 1.5–2.0 kg |
TargetSteadily rising starter intake from the second week.
For this stage
Calf growth & health record
One sheet per calf from birth to weaning: milk, starter, water, scours and treatments week by week.
Complete guide (PDF)
Calf nutrition guide
Step by step from birth to four months: colostrum, the milk period before weaning, starter feed, weaning and the weeks after.
Member area / Calves / 5. stage
Weaning
Weeks 6–8Weaning is a stress point. Doing it gradually, based on starter intake rather than age alone, prevents a growth slump.
Key points
- Reduce milk step by step over 1–2 weeks rather than stopping abruptly.
- Wean Holstein calves when they eat about 1.5 kg starter a day for three consecutive days (up to 2 kg in high-milk programs).
- Keep calves in the same pen and on the same starter for 1–2 weeks after weaning.
- Avoid other stresses (dehorning, moving, vaccination) in the same week.
TargetWeaning weight about twice the birth weight, with no drop in weight gain in the weeks around weaning.
For this stage
Calf growth & health record
One sheet per calf from birth to weaning: milk, starter, water, scours and treatments week by week.
Complete guide (PDF)
Calf nutrition guide
Step by step from birth to four months: colostrum, the milk period before weaning, starter feed, weaning and the weeks after.
Member area / Calves / 6. stage
After weaning
2–4 monthsThe weeks after weaning are a second transition: from individual housing to group life and from starter to a grower ration with forage.
Key points
- Move calves into small groups (about 5–10) of similar age and size.
- Change one thing at a time: first the group, then the feed, about a week apart.
- Switch gradually to a grower concentrate (about 16–18% CP) and introduce good-quality chopped hay.
- Provide enough feed-bunk space so all calves can eat at once.
- Watch for respiratory disease, which often appears after grouping.
TargetDaily gain of about 0.8–1.0 kg; around 120–130 kg at 4 months (Holstein).
For this stage
Calf growth & health record
One sheet per calf from birth to weaning: milk, starter, water, scours and treatments week by week.
Complete guide (PDF)
Calf nutrition guide
Step by step from birth to four months: colostrum, the milk period before weaning, starter feed, weaning and the weeks after.
Member area / Calves / 7. stage
Calf scours
HealthDiarrhoea is the most common cause of calf losses in the first weeks. Dehydration, not the infection itself, is what kills most calves.
Key points
- Watch for sunken eyes, skin that stays tented, weakness and loss of suckling reflex.
- Give oral electrolytes between milk feedings and keep feeding milk; follow your veterinarian’s advice on treatment.
- Prevention: colostrum, clean and dry pens, hygiene of feeding equipment, dam vaccination where recommended.
TargetTreatment rate for scours below 10–15%; mortality below 3–5% in the first 60 days.
For this stage
Calf growth & health record
One sheet per calf from birth to weaning: milk, starter, water, scours and treatments week by week.
Complete guide (PDF)
Calf nutrition guide
Step by step from birth to four months: colostrum, the milk period before weaning, starter feed, weaning and the weeks after.
Member area / Beef cattle
Beef cattle
From arrival to slaughter: receiving and adaptation, step-up to the finishing ration, growing and finishing, and the digestive problems to prevent.
Feeding stages
OverviewFeeding plan by stage01First 2–3 weeksReceiving and adaptation02~3–4 weeksStep-up to the finishing ration03GrowingGrowing period04FinishingFinishing period05HealthDigestive problems to prevent06
Feeding guides
Beef cattle nutrition guide
From arrival to slaughter: receiving and adaptation, step-up to the finishing ration, growing and finishing, and the digestive problems to prevent.
Farm forms and records
Daily feed intake log
Track feed delivered, refusals and dry matter intake per group; the simplest way to see whether a ration works.
Tools and pages
Member area / Beef cattle / 1. stage
Feeding plan by stage
OverviewProfitable fattening means fast, efficient gain without digestive upsets. The share of concentrate rises gradually through the stages. The values below are typical ranges for intensive fattening of young bulls and steers; breed, starting weight and target market change them.
Key points
- Weigh animals at arrival and at least monthly; feed conversion is the key cost figure.
- Group animals by weight and keep group changes to a minimum.
- Feed at the same times every day; consistency prevents digestive problems.
Typical values by stage
| Stage | Concentrate in DM | CP (% DM) | Daily gain |
|---|---|---|---|
| Receiving (2–3 weeks) | 30–50% | 13–14 | Variable |
| Step-up (3–4 weeks) | 50 → 80% | 13–14 | 1.0–1.3 kg |
| Growing | 60–75% | 13–14 | 1.1–1.4 kg |
| Finishing | 80–90% | 12–13 | 1.3–1.6 kg |
TargetSteady daily gain with feed conversion of about 6–8 kg DM per kg gain in the finishing period.
For this stage
Daily feed intake log
Track feed delivered, refusals and dry matter intake per group; the simplest way to see whether a ration works.
Complete guide (PDF)
Beef cattle nutrition guide
From arrival to slaughter: receiving and adaptation, step-up to the finishing ration, growing and finishing, and the digestive problems to prevent.
Member area / Beef cattle / 2. stage
Receiving and adaptation
First 2–3 weeksNewly arrived cattle are stressed by transport, mixing and a new diet. Intake is low in the first days and the risk of respiratory disease is highest.
Key points
- Give clean water and good-quality long hay first; water troughs should be easy to find.
- Start with a low-concentrate ration (about 1% of body weight concentrate) with good protein, vitamins and minerals.
- Health program (vaccination, parasite control) as agreed with your veterinarian.
- Check animals twice a day for coughing, nasal discharge, dullness and low appetite.
TargetAll animals eating and drinking within a few days; treatment rate for respiratory disease kept low.
For this stage
Daily feed intake log
Track feed delivered, refusals and dry matter intake per group; the simplest way to see whether a ration works.
Complete guide (PDF)
Beef cattle nutrition guide
From arrival to slaughter: receiving and adaptation, step-up to the finishing ration, growing and finishing, and the digestive problems to prevent.
Member area / Beef cattle / 3. stage
Step-up to the finishing ration
~3–4 weeksRumen microbes need time to adapt to starch. Moving too fast from forage to grain is the main cause of acidosis in fattening units.
Key points
- Raise concentrate in 3–5 steps, each lasting about 5–7 days.
- Do not move to the next step until intake and manure are stable.
- Ionophores (where permitted), buffers and live yeast can help keep the rumen stable.
TargetReaching the finishing ration without drops in intake or loose manure.
For this stage
Daily feed intake log
Track feed delivered, refusals and dry matter intake per group; the simplest way to see whether a ration works.
Complete guide (PDF)
Beef cattle nutrition guide
From arrival to slaughter: receiving and adaptation, step-up to the finishing ration, growing and finishing, and the digestive problems to prevent.
Member area / Beef cattle / 4. stage
Growing period
GrowingIn the growing period the animal builds frame, muscle and bone. Protein and minerals matter as much as energy.
Key points
- Ration of about 13–14% crude protein with good-quality forage (for example corn silage) plus concentrate.
- Enough physically effective fibre to keep rumination going.
- Calcium, phosphorus and trace minerals balanced for growth; vitamin A especially when forage is poor.
TargetDaily gain of about 1.1–1.4 kg without over-fattening.
For this stage
Daily feed intake log
Track feed delivered, refusals and dry matter intake per group; the simplest way to see whether a ration works.
Complete guide (PDF)
Beef cattle nutrition guide
From arrival to slaughter: receiving and adaptation, step-up to the finishing ration, growing and finishing, and the digestive problems to prevent.
Member area / Beef cattle / 5. stage
Finishing period
FinishingIn the last months, gain becomes more expensive as more fat is deposited. The aim is to reach the target weight and carcass finish efficiently.
Key points
- High-energy ration with about 80–90% concentrate and 10–15% forage for rumen health.
- Read the feed bunk every morning: a small, consistent amount of leftover is the target.
- Enough bunk space and water for all animals.
- Track cost per kg gain; keeping animals too long after the target weight lowers profit.
TargetTarget slaughter weight reached on time with good carcass yield.
For this stage
Daily feed intake log
Track feed delivered, refusals and dry matter intake per group; the simplest way to see whether a ration works.
Complete guide (PDF)
Beef cattle nutrition guide
From arrival to slaughter: receiving and adaptation, step-up to the finishing ration, growing and finishing, and the digestive problems to prevent.
Member area / Beef cattle / 6. stage
Digestive problems to prevent
HealthMost nutritional losses in fattening come from a few problems that start in the rumen.
Key points
- Acidosis: drop in intake, loose manure, lameness. Prevent with gradual step-up, enough effective fibre and consistent feeding.
- Bloat: swollen left flank. Can occur with finely ground grain or lush legumes; act fast and call your veterinarian.
- Liver abscesses and laminitis are often consequences of repeated acidosis.
- Urinary stones: keep the calcium to phosphorus ratio at about 2:1 and ensure plenty of water.
TargetFew digestive cases and low condemnation of livers at slaughter.
For this stage
Daily feed intake log
Track feed delivered, refusals and dry matter intake per group; the simplest way to see whether a ration works.
Complete guide (PDF)
Beef cattle nutrition guide
From arrival to slaughter: receiving and adaptation, step-up to the finishing ration, growing and finishing, and the digestive problems to prevent.
Member area / Sheep
Sheep · Feeding
From digestion and requirements to flushing, late pregnancy, lambs, fattening and minerals: the A–Z handbook, plus animated explainers.
Handbooks and guides (PDF)
Sheep feeding handbook
The whole production year in one handbook: how the sheep’s stomach works, how much it eats and drinks, what each stage needs, from mating and late pregnancy to lambs, fattening and minerals, plus the nutrition-related diseases to prevent.
Sheep & goat nutrition guide
Small ruminants are not small cows. They select feed more, react differently to minerals and have their own critical periods around mating, late pregnancy and lamb fattening.
Animated explainers (members only)
How the rumen develops
From milk-fed newborn to ruminant: the oesophageal groove and the growth of the rumen with solid feed.
Late pregnancy energy race
Foetal growth, rumen space and the mother’s energy balance week by week; why twins need more.
Lactation curve and energy gap
Milk peaks before intake: watch the gap open and close in a dairy goat or ewe.
Urinary stones: Ca:P balance
Move the sliders for calcium, phosphorus and water and see the risk change for males.
Tools and pages
Member area / Sheep
Sheep · Management
Breeds, records, housing, mating, lambing, health, parasites, feet, shearing, milking and culling, with farm forms.
Handbooks and guides (PDF)
Sheep management handbook
From choosing the breed to selling lambs: flock goals and records, housing, the production calendar, reproduction and mating, lambing, lamb care, flock health, parasites, feet, shearing, milking, ageing by teeth, culling and welfare.
Farm forms and records
Lambing record
Every ewe at lambing: date, lambs born, birth ease, colostrum, navel care, tags and losses. The base of all flock performance numbers.
Flock health & parasite record
Treatments, vaccines, FAMACHA©, body condition and faecal egg counts on one sheet, with withdrawal dates. For sheep and goats.
Animated explainers (members only)
The sheep year
An animated year wheel from flushing to weaning, with the key tasks of each month.
Body condition score 1–5
An animated loin cross-section: what your hand feels at each score.
Worm life cycle and FAMACHA©
Follow a worm from the stomach to the pasture and back; then score eyelids on the FAMACHA© scale.
Ageing by teeth
Watch the milk incisors give way to permanent teeth, pair by pair.
Member area / Goats
Goats · Feeding
Browsing behaviour, needs by stage, dairy goat lactation, kids, bucks, minerals and poisonous plants: the A–Z handbook and animations.
Handbooks and guides (PDF)
Goat feeding handbook
Goats are not small cows and not sheep either. This handbook covers how goats choose and use feed, what dairy, meat and hair goats need at each stage, kid rearing, buck feeding, minerals, poisonous plants and the nutrition-related diseases to prevent.
Sheep & goat nutrition guide
Small ruminants are not small cows. They select feed more, react differently to minerals and have their own critical periods around mating, late pregnancy and lamb fattening.
Animated explainers (members only)
How the rumen develops
From milk-fed newborn to ruminant: the oesophageal groove and the growth of the rumen with solid feed.
Late pregnancy energy race
Foetal growth, rumen space and the mother’s energy balance week by week; why twins need more.
Lactation curve and energy gap
Milk peaks before intake: watch the gap open and close in a dairy goat or ewe.
Urinary stones: Ca:P balance
Move the sliders for calcium, phosphorus and water and see the risk change for males.
Tools and pages
Member area / Goats
Goats · Management
Breeds, housing and fencing, breeding, kidding, disbudding, CAE and CL, parasites, hoof care, milking and culling, with farm forms.
Handbooks and guides (PDF)
Goat management handbook
Everything a goat keeper needs beyond the feed trough: breeds, herd goals and records, housing and fencing, the breeding calendar, kidding, kid care and disbudding, CAE and other herd diseases, parasites, hoof care, milking and milk hygiene, ageing, culling and welfare.
Farm forms and records
Kidding record
Every doe at kidding: kids born, ease, colostrum (heat-treated in CAE control), navel care, disbudding and tags.
Flock health & parasite record
Treatments, vaccines, FAMACHA©, body condition and faecal egg counts on one sheet, with withdrawal dates. For sheep and goats.
Animated explainers (members only)
The goat year
Breeding, dry-off, kidding and milking season on an animated wheel.
Body condition score 1–5
An animated loin cross-section: what your hand feels at each score.
Worm life cycle and FAMACHA©
Follow a worm from the stomach to the pasture and back; then score eyelids on the FAMACHA© scale.
Ageing by teeth
Watch the milk incisors give way to permanent teeth, pair by pair.
Member area / Pigs
Pigs · Basics
Feeding guides
Pig nutrition fundamentals guide
How the pig digests feed, how energy, amino acids, minerals and vitamins are expressed in modern feeding systems, and how phase feeding matches the diet to the animal.
Feed ingredients, additives and feed safety for pigs guide
The main energy and protein sources for pigs, their limits, the most important feed additives and the legal limits for trace minerals and mycotoxins (EU reference values).
Water, environment and nutrition–health links in pigs guide
Water and climate set the limits for feed intake, and several common health problems in pigs have nutritional causes or nutritional solutions.
Member area / Pigs
Pigs · Breeding herd
Feeding guides
Replacement gilt development guide
A sow’s lifetime productivity is largely decided before her first mating. Growth rate, age, weight and oestrus number at first service, and the feeding that supports them.
Gestating sow nutrition guide
Pregnancy lasts about 114–116 days. The aim is to bring every sow to farrowing in the right condition: not thin, not fat, with sound legs and a good appetite for lactation.
Lactating sow nutrition guide
A modern sow can produce more than 10 kg of milk a day. Her feed intake in lactation decides litter weaning weight, how much body reserve she loses and how quickly she returns to oestrus.
Breeding boar nutrition guide
Boars are few but each one influences many litters. They should be kept fit and lean, with sound legs, good libido and good semen quality.
Farm forms and records
Farrowing and lactation record (sow card)
One line per sow per litter: litter size, fostering, lactation feed intake, weaning and return to oestrus.
Member area / Pigs
Pigs · Piglets
Feeding guides
Suckling piglet and weaning guide
From birth to weaning: colostrum, warmth, iron, creep feed and preparing piglets for the biggest change of their lives.
Weaned (nursery) pig nutrition guide
The first two weeks after weaning decide nursery performance. Highly digestible diets, early feed intake and gut health without pharmacological zinc oxide.
Farm forms and records
Nursery / grow–finish performance record
Track each pen or batch: weights, feed delivered, diet changes, mortality and treatments, and calculate daily gain and feed conversion.
Member area / Pigs
Pigs · Grow–finish
Feeding guides
Growing–finishing pig nutrition guide
From about 25 kg to slaughter at roughly 110–130 kg, this phase uses most of the feed eaten on a pig farm. Small improvements in feed efficiency have a large economic effect.
Farm forms and records
Nursery / grow–finish performance record
Track each pen or batch: weights, feed delivered, diet changes, mortality and treatments, and calculate daily gain and feed conversion.
Member area / Poultry
Poultry · Laying hens
…
Content for this section is being prepared.Guides, forms and tools will be added here step by step.
Member area / Poultry
Poultry · Broilers
…
Content for this section is being prepared.Guides, forms and tools will be added here step by step.
Member area / Silage & forages
Silage & forages · Making silage
…
Content for this section is being prepared.Guides, forms and tools will be added here step by step.
Tools and pages
Member area / Silage & forages
Silage & forages · Quality & analysis
…
Content for this section is being prepared.Guides, forms and tools will be added here step by step.
Tools and pages
Member area / Silage & forages
Silage & forages · Silo management & feed-out
…
Content for this section is being prepared.Guides, forms and tools will be added here step by step.